浅谈英语委婉语的分类、构成方式及社会功能

1.  Introduction
Euphemisms have existed for a long time. The word “euphemism” comes from the Greek word “Euphemia”. The prefix “eu-” means “good”, the stem “pheme” means “speech” or “saying”. Many people have defined euphemism. Here are some of the definitions.
(1) “(example of the) use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”[1]
(2) “a polite word or expression that you use instead of a more direct one to avoid shocking or upsetting someone.”[2]
(3) “a less direct word used instead of one that is harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.”[3]
(4) “Substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one; Expression thus substituted.”[4]
(5) “a polite word or expression that people use to talk about something unpleasant or embarrassing, such as death and sex.”[5]
(6) “A euphemism is used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: Either one’s own face or, through giving offence, that of the audience, or of some third party.”[6]
Just as the above definitions state, some harsh, blunt, unpleasant or offensive things in life should not be stated directly and truthfully in certain occasions. Under these circumstances, some better -sounding names should be used. Euphemism is a part of human language as well as a psychological and cultural phenomenon of different nations. The usage of English euphemism reflects ethics and behavioral code of people in English-speaking countries. From the day it came into being, euphemism functions as the lubricator of communication. Thus it enables people to live in harmony and makes conversations smooth and successful.
The following parts hold a discussion on the origin, formation, classification and social function of English euphemisms.

2.  The origin of English euphemisms
“Euphemism is the linguistic reflection of social psychology and a product of social and cultural environment.”[7] “In western nations, the usage of euphemisms in early times originated from religion or admires and dread of gods.”[8]Its earlier emergence had a close relation to language taboos and religion.
In ancient society, as the level of productivity and science was very low, people failed to explain the essence of some natural phenomena such as lightening and thunder. They came to believe that there were some supernatural powers, or the existence of devils and gods that controlled their lives and even the whole world. They dared not to mention the names of the devils and gods directly, just as the idiom goes “Speak of the devil and he appears.” Thus, language taboos came into being. To find a solution to this problem, people used other names that is, euphemisms to substitute the names of those things they feared in circumstances that they had to speak of them. Because of the usage of euphemisms, people felt that they were somewhat distant from what they were afraid of and their safety, happiness, health and good luck were guaranteed. Though it is a rather old religious custom, it still exerts a strong influence on modern western nations.
    As we all know, the majority of the population of English-speaking countries believes in God consciously or unconsciously, and they think that God exists everywhere and has unlimited power. Words related to God and religion can only be used in religious ceremonies. Since the name of God is regarded as the avatar of God itself, people usually use “the Lord” to replace it. Besides, Jesus is euphemized as “Gee”, “jeepers”, “jiminy”, “Cricket” or “Criminet”; and “the deuce”, “the dickens” or “Old Nick” substitutes “the Devil”.

3.  The formation of English euphemisms
Various devices are employed to form English euphemisms.
3.1 Phonetic devices
Phonetic distortion is a common means to form English euphemism. For example, People use “Gad”, “Goodness”, “Gosh”, and “Golly” to replace “God” and use “cripes” to replace “Christ” in order to show respect. Assonance is another important means to form euphemisms. For example, “ ‘a coffin shop’ is euphemized as ‘a coffee shop’, for ‘coffin’ and ‘coffee’ have similarity in sound.”[9] Rhyming slang is also employed to form English euphemisms. Slang is very informal and has local color. It was originally used by working people. Now, some slang words have been accepted in Standard English and used as euphemisms. For example, “Bristol cities” is for “breasts”;  “grasp and grunt” is rhyming slang for “cunt” and “tea leaf” is for “thief”.
3.2 Spelling devices
3.2.1 Abbreviations
Some euphemisms are abbreviations. For example, “VD” is for “venereal disease”; “BO” is for “body odor”; “BM” substitutes “bowel movement”; “WC” substitutes “water closet”; “OD” replaces “to take an overdose”, etc.
3.2.2 Reinterpretation of initials
Reinterpretation of initials is also used to form English euphemisms. For example, “hot and cold” is a roundabout expression for “heroin and cocaine”. “hot” and “heroin” have the same initial “h” and “cold” and “cocaine” have the same initial “c”, but “hot and cold” sounds less accurate and indirect.
3.3 vocabulary devices
3.3.1Loan words
Borrowing is the use of loanwords in order to avoid taboos. “It is thought that loanwords have few negative meaning and sensitive associations, so that they sound more neutral and pleasant.” [10]
 Here is a list of direct expressions and their respective euphemisms.
“English             French                      Latin                              
smell              scent
stink               odor
fat                                            rotund
sick/ill             indisposed    
lie                 prevaricate
spit                                            expectorate
sweat                                           perspire” [11]
As we all know, in 43 A.D. Roman Empire conquered England and brought Latin to England and Latin became official language in England. After the Norman Conquest in 1066, French became the governmental language in England. But French and Latin were only spoken by the upper classes, and among the low classes English was spoken. The upper classes held the view that words used by themselves were superior to those used by the low classes. So they used French or Latin words to replace unpleasant English words. Later people accepted the view that French and Latin words are more euphemistic than English words.
3.3.2Using uplifting words
Uplifting words can make one feel happier or more hopeful so they are used quite frequently in modern English as an important means to euphemize things related to the humble social class. The main purpose of using these euphemisms is to make menial jobs sound decent. For example, people replace “waiters” or “waitresses” by “the dining room attendants”, “landscape worker” by “landscape architect”, “garbage man” by “sanitary engineer”, and substitute “butcher” with “meat technologist”. Generally speaking, in forming euphemism the rule of using words that are easy on the ears is observed for the purpose of consolation. Through using uplifting words, the embarrassing facts are embellished and no longer unpleasant.
33.3Using vague words or expressions
In modern western countries, vague words or expressions are used in almost all the fields. “If a neighboring girl has a child before marriage, people will comment like this: ‘She has an accident.’ The word ‘accident’ is very vague. If a person came across a disaster and died, people will also use ‘accident’ to describe his situation. They may say: ‘He has met with an accident.’” [12]In school a student may say to a teacher: “Sorry! I have to do my business” when he wants to go to the washing room. Besides, “a man of bad taste” is called  “a man of doubtful taste”; and “homosexual” is replaced by “queer”. “It is no wonder that euphemism is named weasel words.”[13]
3.3.4 Using country names
Names of some countries are used to substitute uncomfortable things. For example, “Dutch courage” replaces “weak courage”, that is, courage that comes from drinking alcohol; and “Dutch uncle” is for “unpleasant relative”. We all know that there was a war between Britain and Dutch in 17th century. From then on, hatred existed among people in these two nations. And Englishmen used every chance to make joke of Dutch. Besides Dutch, France is also used to form euphemisms like “French novels” for “porn novels” and “French letters” for “condom”. And people use “French devices/methods” or simply “Frenchise” to replace methods of birth control. People in Britain banter French because they were once ruled by it.
3.4 Grammatical devices
More and more linguists become to notice euphemisms formed through grammatical devices. Such euphemisms are used by speakers with a certain purpose.  Only through the context, can listeners figure out speakers’ special intention.
3.4.1 Using the past tense
In written English the past tense is mostly used to express an action or a fact happened in a certain point of time in the past. But in oral English, the past tense can replace the present tense to make the meaning of the sentences sounds more polite and mild.
(1) Do you want me to help you?     
(2) Did you want me to help you?
(3) I wonder if you can do me a favor.  
(4) I wondered if you could do me a favor.
Sentences (1) and (3) use the present tense and sentences (2) and (4) use the past tense, and they are all grammatically right. But sentences (2) and (4) sound more pleasant, for they mean that what the speakers say happened in the past, so the listeners will not feel embarrassed if they have different answers from the speakers’ at the time being.
(5) Wouldn’t it be better for us to start off a little earlier tomorrow?
(6) This is something I should advise you not to do.
    By using the past tense of model auxiliary verbs, the above sentences put forward a polite proposal instead of a harsh one.
3.4.2 Using the subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood in English is mainly used to express doubt, wishes, or possibility. When used in spoken English, one can achieve a better communication effect than with indicative mood or imperative mood. Here are some examples:
(7) If I were you, I would not go there.
(8) If he be found guilty, his membership would be suspended.
(9) It is essential that he recognize his fault.
3.4.3 Using the passive voice
In English, the passive voice is used to avoid mentioning the doer, especially when expressing criticism. Here are two examples:
(10) It is generally considered not acceptable to act that way.
(11) This book was not well written.
In sentence (10), the passive voice is tactfully used not to indicate who acts that way. In sentence (11), the speaker does not mention who is the writer in order not to hurt the person concerned.
3.4.4 Using parentheses
Parentheses are also used to form euphemisms. And a parenthesis can be a word, a phrase or a sentence, such as, “I think”, “I guess”, “I’m afraid”, “I suppose”, “I wonder”, “it seems”, and “it is said”. They are used to make a statement less direct or less strong. Here are some examples:
(12) The man, it seems, is the one who lives next door to Tim.
(13) This, I think, is a very good way to improve your English study.
With “it seems” and “I think” the two sentences sound more modest and less righteous.
3.4.5 Using “please”
Out of kindness and politeness, the word “please” is used as a euphemistic device. Examples:
(14) No photos, please.
(15) Close the door, please.
(16) Children, please! I am trying to work.
In sentence (14), “please” is employed on a sign to say that something is not allowed politely. Sentence (15) uses “please” as a polite way of asking somebody to do something. Sentence (16) employs “please” as a mild criticism, to ask somebody to stop behaving badly.
3.4.6 Using tag questions
A phrase such as “isn’t it?”,  “won’t it”, or “doesn’t she” is added to the end of a sentence to make it a question  or to ask you to agree with the above statement politely. Examples:
(17) Let’s go fishing this afternoon, shall we?
(18) Turn on the light for me, will you?
3.5 Rhetorical devices
Some euphemisms are invented by rhetorical means as follows.
3.5.1 Using metaphor
In English, many euphemisms themselves are vivid and popular metaphors, so it is necessary to find out what “metaphor” means. A metaphor employs a word or a phrase to indicate something different from the literal meaning. People seldom say “he died” but “he went to sleep forever” or “he went to his long home”. Here, “go to sleep forever” and “go to one’s long home” are both metaphors and euphemisms. More examples are:
(19) He is Hamlet.
(20) His plan is castle in the air.
(21) John is carrying coals to Newcastle.
Sentence (19) means “he is indecisive”, sentence (20) means “his plan is daydream”, and sentence (21) has the same meaning with “John is wasting time and energy”. Euphemisms created by this way also appear in literary works. Here is an example:
(22)“therefore it is better to be a guest of the law, which though conducted by rules, does not interfere too with a gentleman’s private affairs.”[14]
In sentence (22), “to be a guest of the law” means to “be in prison”, but the former is a pleasant substitution. Soapy would rather spend his winters in prison than get some help from charity organizations, for if he wants to get help from charities, his private affairs will be interfered.
3.5.2 Using understatement
For the sake of politeness and pleasantness, people often use another formation called understatement, which, is not to state something fully or adequately. Understatement, as the word suggests, is “a statement that is not strong enough to express how good, bad, impressive etc something really is.”[15] “Understatement achieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately understating it.” [16]
“Understatement is usually divided into litotes and meiosis. Litotes is understatement by using a negative statement instead of a positive one”[17]. Examples:
(23) She is very ugly. --- She is not particularly good-looking.
(24) He was quite rich. ---He was a man of no mean wealth.
In sentence (23), “not particularly good-looking” is more neutral and vague than “ugly”, so the employment of this euphemism successfully avoids annoying the person concerned. Sentence (24) has something to do with personal affairs. Westerners don’t like others to talk about their private affairs. Wealth belongs to one’s privacy, so it is more polite to use a roundabout way to talk about it when you have to.
“Meiosis is merely understatement without the use of negatives”[18]. Examples:
(25) Her daughter is in prison. ---Her daughter lives under the government’s expense.
(26) I can’t promise. ---Sorry, this is in fact more than I can promise.
“prison” in sentence (25) is an unpleasant word. General speaking, people are sensitive to the word “prison” if one is in prison, you had better avoid mentioning “prison” in front of his relatives. Sentence (26) is a refusal. When you refuse someone, indirect words will get a better result, for they will not make him lose face.
By using understatements, the speakers do not seem to be so cruel to others whom they speak something upsetting to.
3.5.3 Using metonymy
Metonymy is another very useful rhetorical means to form English euphemisms. It uses the name of one thing to substitute that of another. By using it, some unpleasant expressions can be avoided. Metonymy can be further divided into the following.
(ⅰ) Substituting the typical characteristics of a person for the person
For example,
(27)  Gray hairs should be respected.
In the above sentence, “Gray hairs” is employed to replace “old people”, for gray hair is one of the typical characteristics of old people. Since “old” is a taboo in English-speaking countries people express it with euphemistic words.
(ⅱ) Substituting the whole for the part
For example,
(28) She has a good chest .
In sentence (28), “chest” means “breast”. People consider “breast” as an ungraceful word, so they use roundabout way to mention it.
(ⅲ) Substituting the tools for the action or the thing
For example,
(29) During the World War Ⅱ Hitler attended to carry fire and sword into           Every part of the world.
In sentence (29), “fire and sword” has the same meaning with “war”. In westerners’ eyes, fire is the symbol of hope and sword is the symbol of justice. As war makes people think of misery, they usually don’t mention it directly. Here, “fire and sword” is used to create a sense of satire.
(30) Selling cards is forbidden.                
“cards” in sentence (30) means “drugs”. “drug” is a sensitive word as it has something to do with crime and decadence, so it is often euphemized. People use “card” to refer to “drug” for the reason that drug dealers put disposable drugs into folding postcards and send them to drug addicts.
(ⅳ) Substituting the name of a place for the person
For example,
(31) Tom is successful in his career but he was a brostal.
“Brostal” in the above sentence means “young criminal”. “Brostal” is the name of a locality in Britain. Because the famous young criminals center is located there, people use the name of it to replace “young criminal”.